Green Belt Project: Reduce Resolution Time and Rework in Software Development

This article describes the successful implementation of a Six Sigma Green Belt project in information technology (IT) in which a software development team applied Six Sigma to reduce the resolution time of software defects and minimize rework, thereby increasing customer satisfaction.

A software development team in a leading environmental services company wanted to reduce the resolution time of software defects and change requests that were submitted by the company’s internal customers. The IT team used a defect-tracking application to track the submitted requests and defects. Work items were assigned to the team members for development and testing; updated code was released to the production environment in build cycles of once a month.

The aim of this project was to reduce the development and testing time of work items and to minimize expensive rework using DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control). In the context of this article, rework is defined as revisiting a work item after it is considered resolved and has been deployed to the production environment.

Define

The software development team, business analyst and customers defined the current problem by the following three parameters:

◉ Resolution time for work items and defects should be reduced.

◉ Customer requirements are not well understood, which leads to costly rework.

◉ Related work items are fragmented across build cycles, which increases the time to resolution.

Measure

Historical data from the defect-tracking application as well as up-to-date information was used to estimate the average resolution time of a work item. Using variable data derived by analyzing the submitted tickets, it was found that the average resolution time for a work item was one build cycle (34 days), as shown in the figure below. (As a side note, many projects were taking far too long. A business analyst joined the company and quickly cleaned up the backlog and helped close outstanding issues.)

Work Item Resolution Time

Process Mapping

Process mapping was used to characterize the existing process. Table 1 depicts the current assignment of work items in the team. The priority list of work items for the build cycle is comprised of four items:

◉ Two items related to developing administrative tools in a the software application: admin tool 1 and admin tool 2.

◉ Two items related to editing and displaying customer financial information: finance-related tool 1 and finance-related tool 2.

Table 1: Work Item Fragmentation – Before

Work Item	Build Cycle	Developer
Admin tool 1	4	Developer 1
Finance-related tool 1	4	Developer 1
Admin tool 2	8	Developer 2
Finance-related tool 2	8	Developer 2

The development team manager recognized that software development is a creative process and can quickly get monotonous. Thus, the work was structured so that Developer 1 was assigned two work items: admin tool 1 and finance-related 1 while Developer 2 was assigned the other two work items: admin tool 2 and finance-related tool 2. The mix-and-match assignment of tasks was set to ensure that all developers would get the  chance to work on all areas of the application and gain domain knowledge (both functional and technical) of the application.

In the current scenario, similar work items were assigned to different developers, causing work item fragmentation. Both developers would research the same areas of the application independently; they had to understand requirements, trace issues through the modules of code, develop new code and test code for both work items. Since the work items for the developers were distinct, the development and testing times when taken together were significant.

The team realized that if similar work items within the software application were assigned to the same developer, there would be less context switching required, and the development and testing times would reduce significantly (i.e., to a single build cycle). If Developer 1 was assigned both work items related to administrative tools and if Developer 2 was assigned both work items related to finance, the overall development and testing times would likely be reduced.

An input-process-output analysis was used on a sampling of change requests to determine the inputs (x) that affected the resolution time of customer requests. Customer requirements, prioritization of tasks, technical knowledge and communication all had significant effects on the speed of resolution and the quality of the resolved work items. A cause-and-effect matrix was then used to narrow down the factors that would have maximum impact on the resolution time of work items and the amount of rework involved. Unclear requirements and unplanned assignments of work items to developers emerged as the most important points of focus.

Analyze

Several tools were applied during the Analyze phase of this project. Pareto charts were used to quantitatively analyze the customer requests and determine which areas in the application generated maximum customer requests. It was decided to document the code in these areas and provide user training where needed. The 5 Whys tool was used to analyze reasons for rework across build cycles.

Brainstorming by the development team, a business analyst and the internal customers led to the following discoveries:

◉ Requirements were modified after the work item was resolved.

◉ Defects in related web pages and modules were reported at different times.

◉ Resolution of work items was not always achieved per the customer’s expectations.

Each of these instances required rework.

Improve

The software development team documented a process to improve software development efficiency and to reduce rework. The new strategy included the following steps.

◉ Gather clear customer requirements: Ambiguous requirements were identified as the primary cause of rework. It was determined that software development work would begin only after the customer requirements were clearly documented and communicated. This involved much discussion between the customers and development managers before tasks were assigned to the software developers. The requirements-gathering templates were revised and modularized to make sure that all essential information was included. Screenshots were included wherever possible to ensure that requirements were clearly communicated.

◉ Reduce knowledge switching: The customers, development team manager and the business analyst started investing significant resources in prioritizing and grouping of work items. Similar work items within a software application were aggregated and assigned to the same developer. This allowed the developer to minimize wasted knowledge recovery time between tasks, and greatly reduced software development and testing time.

◉ Reduce rework: Throughout the lifecycle of a work item, the customers and the development team started jointly reviewing the in-development product using prototypes and screen shots. This iterative methodology allowed the customers to request any additional changes early in the development process and reduce expensive rework. Rigorous unit testing and peer code reviews within the development team further increased code reliability. Knowledge sharing between developers (through technical presentations and building domain knowledge within areas of the application) was encouraged.

Table 2: Work Item Fragmentation – After

Work Item	Build Cycle	Developer
Admin tool 1	4	Developer 1
Admin tool 2	4	Developer 1
Finance-related tool 1	4	Developer 2
Finance-related tool 2	4	Developer 2

Related work items were combined and assigned to one software developer in one build cycle. As shown in Table 2, Developer 1 works on the admin tools, while Developer 2 works on the finance-related tools; this continuity in work improved work item resolution time.

Outcome

The developers now get customer requirement clarification at the start of a work item, write the necessary code and test a work item in a single software development cycle. Since knowledge and context switching are now minimal, development and testing time decreased and resolution time of work items improved as shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Project Savings

Category	Before (Weeks)	After (Weeks)	Overall Savings (Weeks)
Admin tools	8	6	2
Finance-related tools	16	4	12

Control

The list of work items that was used to assign tasks per month was revised to combine related tasks. Resolution time for work items was monitored. It was found that by gathering detailed requirements, carefully prioritizing work items and assigning similar tasks to the same developer, more development and testing could be accomplished in a single build cycle. The defects submitted to the defect-tracking application were monitored and the number of requests for rework decreased significantly.

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How to keep projects on track

Flexible practices can help in the challenging moments of a project, whilst traditional practices ensure you keep your eye on the prize in terms of the end goal. When it comes to striking the balance between strict project scheduling and the creativity of working in an agile way, these top tips will help you keep your project on track.

Aligning expectations from the get-go

Some of the biggest hiccups in a project come from differing expectations. Prevent this by defining end goals at the start of a project so that all parties are on the same page. Be sure to communicate clear goals with teams so that they are familiar with the desired outcomes.

You should also ensure you are managing client and stakeholder expectations from the early stages. Clearly setting out the level of work, time and costs involved in executing tasks will contribute to client and stakeholder satisfaction. What’s more, shared expectations can greatly improve collaboration on all levels.

Involve teams in the wider business

Communicating a project’s goals to teams should not be limited to the project briefing. Revisiting and readdressing the intended outcomes throughout will help keep a project on track. What’s more, ongoing discussions will improve team morale and motivation as they feel involved and recognise their contribution to the bigger picture.

Whilst you don’t want to bog team members down with talk of business drivers, objectives and threats, sharing this knowledge at a high level can improve their understanding of the wider business and help them view a project holistically. Armed with this knowledge, you may even find team members can offer creative solutions should a problem arise. Involving teams in the wider business has the potential to be win-win.

Say no to scope creep

Scope creep is said to be a top factor in project delays and can have a hugely detrimental impact on budget too. Careful planning and execution minimises scope creep in advance. As mentioned, aligning expectations at the beginning of a project is often key to achieving this.

More often than not, a project’s success is defined by it being delivered on time and on budget, and any additions to the scope are overlooked when measuring success. With this in mind, you can say ‘no’ to scope creep if it is going to cause delays or be costly. Explain to the client or stakeholder that the change request is outside of your agreed scope and reassure them that this can be saved for future phases as part of an ongoing project.

Be adaptable

Providing your team with PRINCE2 agile training will encourage adaptable working practices. This course combines the flexibility and responsiveness of agile with the clearly defined framework of PRINCE2. Essentially benefiting them with the best of both worlds.

With practice and guidance, being flexible to change and responsive to issues will become more familiar and less alien to your team. You will soon find the team are solving problems on the fly, without interrupting the course of the project.

Keep an eye on progress

If you are working on a project in phases or sprints, it’s a good idea to check in after each stage. Hold a phase debriefing session so you can assess progress against the roadmap, and reflect on any possible improvements going forward.

Perhaps you’ve been distracted by interruptions throughout this phase? Take steps to prevent these and limit distractions during the next stage. Or maybe you didn’t tackle project challenges as creatively as you could have. Whatever the obstacles, ongoing critical analysis allows you to remedy any downfalls and can ensure smoother progression in upcoming phases, in turn keeping the project on track.

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Objective Defect Evaluation Leads Improvement Efforts

Many times it is imperative for a firm to improve the quality of its deliverables even though it is operating consistently at a high sigma level. Such continuous improvement is also necessary when addressing various levels of the capability maturity model integration (CMMI), a software process guide. CMMI Level 5 calls for a proactive reduction in variation and a shift in the mean, while Level 3 involves addressing continuous improvement from a reactive position. The difficulty in completing these tasks, however, is knowing where to start. When no process area is clearly failing, but the drive for continuous improvement remains, such as in the completion of CMMI Level 5, practitioners should use an end-effect rating system to determine where to focus efforts.

Considering Errors

Selecting a direction for improvement can be hard if no one step in a software process is producing significant errors. Consider this example from a service firm that delivers computer aided drafting (CAD) models and drawings, and needs to reduce defects in drawings. Figure 1 shows the generic flow of the activities.

Figure 1: Flow Chart of CAD Models and Drawings Delivery Process

In order to improve the process, the data has to be logged and analyzed. Once the data is captured (Table 1), it can be organized in a Pareto chart for analysis (Figure 2).

Table 1: Errors in CAD Drawings

Category of Errors	Number of Errors
Dimensions	1
Typographical error in notes	1
Part number	1
Base object model (BOM)	1
Views not matching	1
Digital raster graphic (DRG) format	1
Part naming	1
Angle of projection	1
Datum reference	1
Missed out feature	1
Sketch constraints	1
Geometric dimensioning and tolerances (GD&T)	1
Assembly mismatch	1

Figure 2: Error Categories in Pareto Analysis

But it would be inappropriate to use the data in this Pareto to take corrective action; it is a random plot of the data because each category had the same number of errors: one. Other methods must be used to determine the best course of action.

Finding Direction

In order to objectively analyze and take corrective action in instances where a solution is not readily available, a simplified version of the FMEA (failure mode and effects analysis) can be used. The FMEA caters to the Design phase of product life cycle management. CMMI and Six Sigma practitioners use a similar approach to imagine failure during the Design phase and address it by way of either incorporating redundancy or redesign. The following is a simplified version of the FMEA concept. It incorporates a severity number, failure effect number and end effect number, which are assigned to each error category.

Arriving at the End Effect Number

Severity is rated on a scale of 1 to 4, with 4 being the most severe potential consequences of failure. The classifications for each rating are listed in Table 2.

Table 2: Severity Number Classifications

Severity Category	Failure Effect	Severity Number
Catastrophic	-Loss of life, life threatening or resulting in permanent injury or occupational illness -Loss of launch site facilities -Loss of system -Long-term detrimental environmental effects	4
Critical	-Temporarily disabling or occupational illness, but not life threatening -Loss or major damage to systems or facilities -Loss or major damage to public or private property -Short-term detrimental effects	3
Major	-Mission or system degradation	2
Negligible	-Any other effect	1

The failure effect number is determined using the same four-option scale as the severity number, but is based on the immediate consequences of the failure. The end effect number is the product of the severity number and the failure effect number.

The severity, failure effect and end effect numbers for the CAD example are shown in Table 3.

Table 3: End Effect Number Calculation

Category of Errors	Severity Number	Failure Effect Number	End Effect Number
Dimensions	4	4	16
Typographical error in notes	1	1	1
Part number	1	1	1
BOM	2	2	4
Views not matching	1	1	1
DRG format	1	1	1
Part naming	1	1	1
Angle of projection	1	2	2
Datum reference	3	4	12
Missed out feature	4	4	16
Sketch constraints	1	1	1
GD&T	3	4	12
Assembly mismatch	2	2	4

Data may also be sorted and displayed (Figure 3) with regard to the end effect number.

Figure 3: End Effect Numbers for Error Categories

This rating system gives practitioners a more objective understanding and direction as to how to go about further analyzing the data and taking corrective action. This can give rise to a Six Sigma DMAIC (Design, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) project, and also justifies continuous improvement toward achieving CMMI Level 5.

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Breakthrough Change: What It Means and Why It Is Needed

Breakthrough. It sounds good. It even sounds like something everyone should support. The problem, however, comes when people are asked to define breakthrough. There is almost always a slight pause, or in some cases a long one, that says they are not certain what it means.

To understand what breakthrough means and why it is an important part of any continuous improvement program, it helps to take a look at the history of the term in regards to Six Sigma and how the concept fits with another familiar Six Sigma idea: control.

Looking Back at Juran

In terms of the quality discipline, Joseph Juran was the first to publish a cognitive effort around the concept of breakthrough in his book Managerial Breakthrough: The Classic Book On Improving Management Performance (McGraw-Hill) published in 1964. He defined breakthrough as “dynamic change.” By means of contrast, he defined control as “lack of change; maintaining status quo.” In the context of Juran’s definition, breakthrough and control are mutually exclusive; it would be impossible to have one at the same time you were involved with the other.

The concept of control is best understood through control charts. Control charts are a tool that allow practitioners to collapse process variation around some measure of central tendency and separate natural variation from an assignable cause.

If reducing variation is control, how do you achieve breakthrough? Why would you want breakthrough since it seems to mean the opposite of control? Figure 1 is similar to the illustration that Juran published in Managerial Breakthrough and shows the benefit breakthrough can bring.

Figure 1: Representation of Control and Breakthrough

The illustration does not show control and breakthrough as opposite things as much as it shows them as elements of an improvement system. There is a process that is in some state of control; it is driven to a different target and control is reestablished around the new target. The new state is within tighter control limits, meaning the effects of different variables were studied and practitioners determined which variables affected the mean and which affected the variation. This sorting process allowed the process to be reestablished to an improved state. Although the two definitions (breakthrough and control) initially appear diametrically opposed, when they are used together they become a basic roadmap for achieving breakthrough results.

The Six Sigma methodology aligns with what Juran published decades earlier. The shift in Juran’s illustration is a mean shift. In the Six Sigma methodology this occurs in the Improve phase. Juran’s illustration shows control being reestablished once the mean shift is accomplished. The Six Sigma methodology has Control as a final step to institutionalize the breakthrough that took place.

Why Make a Breakthrough

Why would taking a process through breakthrough be a desirable thing? Taguchi’s loss function can provide that answer. The idea is that there is an optimal place, or target, to operate every process. The loss function states that as a process departs from that target there is a “loss imported to society.” When using the concept that Juran illustrated or the methodology of Six Sigma, the process is consistent with Taguchi’s idea – drive the process to an optimal target and reduce variation around the target. The critical element is establishing the target that satisfies both the needs of the customer and is the most financially viable target for a producer.

Selecting the Right Target: A Breakthrough Example

The following case study illustrates the breakthrough concept. There is a plating process that sputters gold. The customer specification is between 900 angstroms and 1,200 angstroms (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Customer Specifications for Plating Process

The product as defined by the customer is acceptable within these limits; therefore, the most financially rewarding target for the manufacturer is a process with a mean equal to 900 angstroms and a standard deviation of 0.

The current process is targeted low so the mean is toward the lower specification limit. Because the variation is large, the customer is receiving out-of-specification material and they are unhappy. The manufacturer is also dissatisfied with the reject rate and the customer’s complaints (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Current Production Data

The first step must be to protect the customer, so the target of 900 angstroms is not practical. It would worsen the dissatisfaction of both the customer and the manufacturer.

After applying Six Sigma theory, in its pure state, the new target is six standard deviations inside the lower specification limit; this is a breakthrough change (Figure 4). The customer is protected and satisfied; however, the new target is not the optimal target of 900 angstroms. Based on Taguchi’s loss function, there is a loss in terms of additional gold plated on each piece and that increases material cost for the manufacturer.

Figure 4: Shift in Mean Six Standard Deviations

The next step is to reduce variation around the mean. It is that decrease in the standard deviation that allows the mean to be shifted toward the lower specification limit or the true target. A shift of the mean, another breakthrough step, toward the lower specification limit with the smaller standard deviation allows the same level of protection for the customer and allows the manufacturer to reduce its cost (Figure 5). There is no disadvantage to either the producer or customer in this process.

Figure 5: Second Breakthrough Improvement

Incorporating Breakthrough

Establishing a continuous improvement program that focuses on breakthrough introduces the mean shift as a key approach to success. When practitioners focus exclusively on variation reduction, or control, they may be optimizing a process on a suboptimized target and end up leaving huge benefits lying on the table.

Regardless of the tool set used, when building a continuous improvement program, it is important to incorporate both control and breakthrough methodologies.

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How to be proactive at work

Proactive working allows you to be prepared for change in the future. As project managers, it is important we are in the right mindset to make logical, rational decisions. Working smarter and more productively will allow you to seek out and identify new opportunities and to innovate. So, what changes can you make in order to get ahead and achieve more? This list of healthy work habits could just be the answer to ditching the stress and becoming more proactive at work.

Drink well

We’ll start with an easy one! We all know we should be drinking more water for our health, to aid weight loss or to improve physical performance; but did you know that it has a profound effect on our brain functioning too? Fluid loss of just 1-3% counts as mild dehydration and can lead to major reductions in memory and brain performance. So, drink up whilst you’re at work!

Remove distractions

A smartphone etiquette survey revealed that 80% of those surveyed said phone checking during a meeting was inappropriate, but the research also found that 50% of us do it anyway! What’s more, the survey showed that twenty percent of us check our phones at least once every twenty minutes whilst at work!

Regular notification checking can be a huge drain on our productivity. And it’s not just mobile phones. Work chats such as Slack and group emails can be just as distracting. Luckily, there are some solutions. Enable do not disturb modes, leave your mobile in your bag or give your nearest and dearest your work phone number to use in case of emergency.

Shooting for ‘inbox zero’

When it comes to your email inbox, it is paramount that you have some sort of system for organising. Whether it’s filing by client or project type, or a rule for colour flagging depending on status. Find a system that works for you and you may be amazed by the difference it makes to your daily working life. A great goal to aim for is keeping your inbox at zero. Do this by replying to emails straight away and deleting unnecessary ones. Any mail left in your inbox will then be what is in need of attention, almost like a to-do list.

Workout in your lunch hour

If you are lucky enough to have a gym within walking distance of your office, then consider signing up and using it, as it could just improve your productivity in the workplace. Exercising in your lunch break will see you benefit from regained focus and energy – ideal for preventing that unproductive mid-afternoon slump.

Take a walk

If you fret about working up too much of a sweat, then consider walking in your lunch break instead. The NHS recommendation is that you get 150 minutes of moderate intensity activity a week. That’s just five 30-minute sessions of low-level exercise. Gym or no gym, a simple brisk walk can be enough to raise your heartrate and fill your quota. It will lift your mood and re-energise you for the afternoon ahead.

Eat well

In a survey of over 7,000 workers, 68% justified skipping their lunch break saying they had too much to do or an unexpected task to handle. Many of us are aware that we get out what we put in and that good food will fuel us best. However, desk lunches could be the undoing of that. Nutrition therapists report that eating at our desks has a host of negative effects including unhealthy snacking later in the day. It also deprives us of the sensory break our minds and bodies need to function productively.

Flexible working

Flexible working has been on the rise in recent years, and now ranks in the top three factors when making career decisions for ~40% of candidates. Choosing your working hours can have a profound impact on your proactiveness. If you are a morning person, starting at 7.30am could be the key to getting more out of your working day. Others may find a 10am start and a later finish is better for their proactiveness. An added bonus being that you can shift your working hours to avoid rush hour traffic and minimise your daily stress too.

The right kind of to-do list

As a project manager you are a serial multi-tasker, which is why it's so important to find a to-do list and personal scheduling system that works for you. Some swear by a notebook and diary – the satisfaction of crossing things off the list is hard to rival. For others, a kanban system for tracking task progress works best. However you plan your daily schedule, remember that allowing surplus or contingency time will help you feel less stressed when things run over, and ensure you are prepared should problems arise.

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Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma Certification: A Complete Step-by-Step Guide

Six Sigma is a quality management program that seeks to minimize or eliminate defects or errors in products and business services. Originally developed to enhance manufacturing processes, the tools and techniques used in Six Sigma are now held industry-agnostic, which means they have been successfully used in such sectors as aeronautics, electronics, pharmaceuticals, retail, and more.

The sigma part of Six Sigma applies to the data analysis portion of the process. Following Six Sigma methods, a team gathers and analyzes data about product manufacture or service creation/delivery to discover the standard deviation (sigma) between the mean and the nearest customer specification limit. The aim is to limit defects or errors to a peak of 3.4 per million opportunities.

Organizations that have used Six Sigma processes may also view improved customer service, shorter cycle times, and better compliance with management and business development standardization. However, the difficulties of Six Sigma make its processes somewhat challenging to implement, and it typically takes months or years before all appropriate employees are on board, following the procedures closely and consistently enough to obtain such benefits and value.

Overview of Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma Certifications

Unlike most IT-related certifications, Six Sigma certifications are available from several various certification bodies, such as the American Society of Quality (ASQ), iSQI Lean Six Sigma Academy (LSSA) and the International Association for Six Sigma Certification (IASSC). That indicates either the individual seeking certification or the individual's business must research and analyze programs before committing to one in particular.

Each certification body offers similar no same Six Sigma certification levels, although the following are mostly regular across programs:

• Yellow Belt: This person is a project team member who helps project improvements.

• Green Belt: This person also supports project improvements, helps with statistical analysis, and may manage projects in a part-time capacity.

• Black Belt: This person leads projects usually full time and often trains, coaches, and manages project members.

• Master Black Belt: This person develops project metrics and plans, works as an organization's go-to Six Sigma person, and trains and mentors Black Belts and Green Belts.

Unlike some IT certifications, Six Sigma certifications do not form certification steps. That means a Yellow Belt is not a requirement to a Green Belt, and you do not require a Green Belt to become a Black Belt, and so forth.

ASQ Six Sigma Certifications

The American Society for Quality (ASQ) certification program has 18 certifications. It covers the Yellow Belt, Green Belt, Black Belt, and Master Black Belt credentials, along with 14 others that are particular to job roles.

Candidates for ASQ certifications can save money by becoming a member, which costs $29 to $159 per year, depending on whether you register at the Student, Associate, or Full level.

IASSC Lean Six Sigma Certifications

IASSC concentrates on Lean Six Sigma, which connects lean manufacturing processes and systems within the Six Sigma structure. IASSC exams are based on topics in the IASSC Globally Accepted Lean Six Sigma Body of Knowledge.

The IASSC Lean Six Sigma certification curriculum has only three but reliable certifications: Certified Yellow Belt, Certified Green Belt, and Certified Black Belt.

IASSC stands out in the Six Sigma track because the organization does not offer training, and it does not need work experience or hands-on projects as an element of its certification specifications. Candidates must pass a written exam.

The cost of IASSC certification exams is $395 for the Certified Black Belt, $295 for the Certified Green Belt, and $195 for the Certified Yellow Belt.

iSQI LSSA Lean Six Sigma Certifications

Six Sigma is a method for process improvement by using analytical and statistical techniques. Six Sigma is based on the Continuous Improvement Maturity Model (CIMM), which is used for developing world-class products. Lean in this connection means that several processes are considered comprehensively, enabling holistic process optimization.

The internationally recognized LSSA Lean Six Sigma certifications provide four levels of specialization in the fields of process improvement, quality management, and product development. These are called the Yellow Belt, Orange Belt, Green Belt, and Black Belt.

There are no particular requirements or expected pre-certifications. All four LSSA certificates can be obtained independently of one another by taking an exam.

The cost of iSQI LSSA certification exams is $568 for the Certified Black Belt, $425 for the Certified Green Belt, and $240 for the Certified Yellow Belt.

Becoming Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma Certified

To achieve a Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma certification, a candidate should require to meet experience elements, pass a written certification exam, and demonstrate hands-on competency. Most of the different certification bodies offer training which is suggested but not typically required as part of a certification package, which also covers training materials and written exam costs. Exams are conducted by Pearson VUE, Prometric, or the certification bodies at specialized conferences and educational events.

Written exams are usually multiple-choice and increase in allotted time and stress at each certification level. Where a Yellow Belt written exam may take 90 minutes, a Black Belt exam may need four hours. The hands-on portion of certification testing means typically making one or more quality projects with signed affidavits.

Read: REASONS WHY LEAN SIX SIGMA BLACK BELT CERTIFICATION IS DESIRABLE

For example, a Green Belt might be needed to perform one project, a Black Belt two plans, and a Master Black Belt 10 or more projects. Most certification bodies provide applicants to count college or university degrees toward the work experience requirements.

Job Opportunities for Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma Certified Professionals

Just as there is not one industry to which Six Sigma processes apply, Six Sigma job roles vary. The most popular characters are project manager, project or process engineer, and quality assurance engineer. However, because employees from many various departments may participate in a Six Sigma team, you can also get business intelligence analysts, operational risk managers, software developers, and consultants, to name a few.

There is a healthy job market for Six Sigma certified professionals.

The average annual salary for a Yellow Belt is about $66,000, and a Green Belt is $82,000. A Black Belt can expect just under $98,000 on average, whereas a Master Black Belt averages $119,000, but it is common to see job descriptions with salaries of $135,000 to $122,000, and sometimes more.

Summary

ProcessExam offers extensive online practice exams for Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma certificate programs with different levels of Six Sigma experience. The online practice exams Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma certificate prepare professionals to satisfy the enormous demand for Lean expertise, skills, and certification.

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Reaching Excellence in Black Belt Performance

What separates high-performing Black Belts from low performers? Most people would probably automatically refer to project success: High-performing Black Belts better execute the Six Sigma methodology and deliver significant process improvements and accompanying financial benefits. While this answer is definitely true, it reflects a limited view. This article outlines a more comprehensive picture of Black Belt performance and its drivers.

A Definition of Performance

A fitting place to start is with a definition of what performance is. While there are many potential definitions out there, the following one looks at performance from an organizational context:

Performance is the value added to the organization that the person and/or the group can give with reference to the achievement of organizationally relevant objectives.

Following this definition, a specific Black Belt activity is not perceived as well performed by the quality of the execution of the tasks itself. The evaluation criterion is the degree to which this behavior contributes to the success of the company. This means, for example, that conducting a great data analysis during a Six Sigma project is only perceived as high performance behavior if the results of this analysis help achieve a project goal that at the same time contributes to the overall Six Sigma deployment objectives and the organization’s strategy.

This definition therefore includes the “what” and “how” of performance. What needs to be achieved refers to the company’s objectives. With regard to Six Sigma, these objectives are typically breakthrough process improvements and significant business benefits. A company should expect a Black Belt to close major competitive gaps by either enhancing the customer experience or generating positive economic profit. But also – in the longer term – cultural organizational change toward a data-driven decision-making process and customer-oriented organization can be achieved.

On the “how” side, performance-driving behaviors can be seen in four major areas:

◉ Task performance

◉ Leadership performance

◉ Interpersonal performance

◉ Ethical performance

Task Performance

Task performance refers to the technical project execution. This starts with selecting and scoping the right projects, ensuring Sponsor commitment and having sufficient resources available. During the project, high performance of tasks can be observed if the Black Belt selects the right tools from the Six Sigma toolbox to drive the right behavior during the project. In particular, tools that help to understand the root causes of the problem, statistical and process analysis tools to verify these causes, and techniques to generate and select the right solutions are key to project success.

During the Control part and the project follow-up phase, a successful Black Belt prepares and conducts a proper handover to the process owner and follows up on the implementation of solutions to ensure that KPIs and the business case are achieved and the process owner’s organization can easily implement and sustain the solution.

A company seeking successful Black Belts should look for a person with good analytical and project management skills. In terms of analytical skills, Black Belts should foster sound decision-making based on data. They ask the right questions and keep asking questions. Having an affinity for statistics is important here but not statistical expertise because running statistical analysis is rather easy today given good statistical data analysis software.

In terms of project management skills, Black Belts should already bring project management experience to successfully deploy tools required to plan and assign tasks and timelines, define roles and responsibilities, hold team members accountable, effectively run meetings, resolve issues, move projects forward and complete the projects in an appropriate timeframe with the expected benefits.

Leadership Performance

Successful Black Belts are results-oriented and strong in influencing people for results, developing team members, managing conflicts in the team and between other stakeholders, and leading change through strong listening, influencing and communication skills. High performers in the leadership category involve the key stakeholders early in the project and keep them up to date. They effectively communicate with the organization’s leaders, and they consistently motivate the team to high-performance levels.

But leadership performance relates not only to project leadership. A high-performing Black Belt also inspires people to apply Six Sigma tools in their day-to-day operations and drives enthusiasm for Six Sigma within the organization.

Interpersonal Performance

Interpersonal performance focuses on the behavior that a Black Belt shows in interaction with other people. One of the goals of a Six Sigma deployment is usually to build a strong Six Sigma community within the organization as a base for cultural change. Given that, a high-performing Black Belt will build networks with other people involved in the Six Sigma deployment and also with key decisions makers, process experts and other associates in the organization. Within this network the Black Belt will share best practices and drive best practice exchange between others. A high-performing Black Belt offers help to others where needed but is also open to receive help and coaching from colleagues.

Skills that are required here typically fall in the category of teamwork. These are skills such as listening and appreciating other people’s ideas, asking questions, encouraging people to participate and use effective communication channels between one another. The successful team player senses what contributions need to be made and how he or she can best support the group in achieving its goals.

Ethical Performance

During the last decade, stakeholders expect companies to commit more and more to their social and ethical responsibilities on top of their financial ones. This refers to company-internal behaviors like showing awareness of and commitment to company values and taking care of employee-related values as well as externally focused behaviors like starting a dialogue with important stakeholders (customers, business partners, community and environment) and engaging in social activities with specific stakeholder groups.

For a Black Belt, ethical performance can be observed on an individual, interpersonal and project level. On an individual level, a Black Belt accords to playing by the rules and values of the company and working with integrity. With regard to Six Sigma, this means not compromising on the philosophy and methods of Six Sigma by running every project under the umbrella of Six Sigma. Another ethical behavior is not trying to fulfill unrealistic expectations in Six Sigma projects like closure within two months or unrealistic goals. It can also mean that the Black Belt intervenes if he or she feels that Six Sigma is abused for political purposes (e.g., to give a rationalization program a nicer name).

On an interpersonal level, an ethically high-performing Black Belt ensures appropriately open and honest two-way communication with all internal and external stakeholders of the project, is transparent with regard to the project objectives, provides training as needed and gives recognition to associates.

Finally, on a project level, a Black Belt ensures that project objectives are also the supporting social responsibility and customer-satisfaction targets of a company. Projects are therefore selected that improve the safety and reliability of products or services, increase courteous attention to customer queries and complaints, ensure adequate supply of products or services, provide full and unambiguous information to potential customers as well as reduce the potential dangers of pollution or disposal of waste.

Going Beyond the Limits: Exceptional Performance

Sometimes being a good performer is simply not enough: What is required is outstanding performance or unprecedented results. This means outperforming ourselves and going beyond our own limits. For a Black Belt, this would imply leading extremely difficult projects and at the same time managing really well the political and organizational implications of the role.

The keys to exceptional performance for Black Belts are:

◉ Clear project objectives

◉ Ongoing feedback by sponsor and relevant stakeholders, including project team members

◉ Sense of ownership about the goals

◉ Sense of control over the performance drivers and the results

◉ Commitment and involvement

A clear leading indicator of outstanding performance in Black Belt projects is an impressive combination of focus, concentration and self efficacy that is called “flow.” To get to the flow area of performance, it is necessary for a Black Belt to lead a really challenging project but at the same time to be convinced to have the right competencies, as per the figure below (situation A4).

The Reasons for Excellent Performance

All other situations undermine exceptional performance and call for action by the Black Belt’s supervisor or coach (such as a Master Black Belt). Situation A3 is a threatening combination of high challenge and poor competencies, while A2 is the avenue of frustration, with high competencies wasted on a really simple challenge.

There is lot that can be done to raise the bar of Black Belt performance. First of all, clarify that performance is not just task related but also involves leadership, interpersonal and ethical performance. Second, lead them in the steady development of their limits, in order to create the flow experience.

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5 things to read ITIL Or PMP. Which Certification suit you?

PMP or ITIL is the highest search looked by professionals as which would suit their career the most. To give a standpoint both ITIL Training & Certification & PMP Certification & Training has great value in their respective implementations.

If you work in IT Service Management Industry who handles projects or anywhere involved in the life cycle of a project, Both ITIL Certification & PMP Certification adds value projecting that you are aware of both process & project management.

If you work out of IT Service management industry, PMP Certification alone makes much sense with knowledge areas giving clear picture of the project.

In all these two certification programs, PMP Certification is tougher than ITIL Foundation. But equally, ITIL has advanced level ITIL Intermediate certifications from ITIL Intermediate Service Strategy, Service Design, Service Transition, Service Operation to Continuos Service Improvement.

What are 5 Differences?

1. What is ITIL? 

ITIL is known as Information Technology Infrastructure Library. ITIL contains the set of best practices for IT service Management. ITIL helps any organisation to integrate these best practises with organisation goals & strategy to deliver value & compliance.Axelos administers ITIL & its Certification Programs.ITIL clearly describes 

◈ Processes

◈ Procedures

◈ Tasks

◈ Checklists

1. What is PMP ?

Project management Institute is known as PMI® administers Project Management Professional (PMP). 

PMP has become widely recognised certification for project managers in China, India, Middle East, USA & Australia. 

2. What does ITIL Contain?

ITIL has Five Different levels.

They are:

◈ ITIL Foundation

◈ ITIL Intermediate Level

◈ ITIL Managing Across the Lifecycle

◈ ITIL Expert Level

◈ ITIL Master Qualification

ITIL Foundation is an entry level certification program to bring awareness to the professionals of concepts, Key elements & terminology of ITIL Service Lifecycle and is also pre-requisite for the next advance levels.

2. What does PMP contain?

PMP has 5 process groups & 10 Knowledge Areas. 

They are:

1. Process Groups:

2. Initiating the project

3. Planning the project

4. Executing the project

5. Monitoring and controlling the project

6. Closing the project

Knowledge Areas:

1. Project Integration Management

2. Project Scope Management

3. Project Time Management

4. Project Cost Management

5. Project Quality Management

6. Project Human Resource Management

7. Project Communications Management

8. Project Risk Management

9. Project Procurement Management

10. Project Stakeholders Management

3. Who is Eligible?

ITIL - IT Infrastructure Library has no specific pre-requisites. Anyone who pursues career at IT Service Management Industry can take up ITIL Foundation Certification & Training. But to continue to advance levels of ITIL Intermediate Modules, ITIL Foundation Certificate becomes mandatory.

3. Who is Eligible?

PMP - Project management Professional has prerequisites. PMP Certification is best suited for the professional who handles the project or anywhere associated with the life cycle of project.

Don't have a Bachelor's Degree:

You need 5 years or 60 months or 7500 hours - Leading & Directing a project with 35 PDU Certificate

Have a Bachelor's Degree:

You need 3 years or 36 months or 4500 hours - Leading & Directing a project along 35 PDU Certificate 35 PDU - It is certificate obtained to prove that you have a formal education of PMP and will be provided at the end of training.

1 Hour = 1 PDU

4. Exams Pattern of ITIL

40 Multiples choice question with one hour of time.

To pass: 26 out of 40 (means 65%)

ITIL Certificate is valid for lifetime

4. Exam Pattern of PMP

200 Multiple choice question with 4 hours of time including 25 unaccounted research questions.

NO specific pass percentage for PMP. 

But professionals will be awarded grades " proficient, moderately proficient or below proficient"

PMP Certification has to renew with 60 PDU Once in three years after obtaining the Certified PMP credential.

5. Where can I take ITIL Exam?

The professional has to approach ITIL Approved Examination Organisation on behalf of Axelos to enrol for ITIL Exams.

5. Where can I take PMP Exam?

The professional has to register in PMI and pay for the PMP certification Exam & obtain exam voucher. 

The professional has to approach Prometric examination Centre recognised by PMI to write the examination

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Thoughts on Hiring Outside Continuous Improvement Consultants

In Hamlet, Act 1, scene 3, Polonius advises his son Laertes, “To thine own self be true.” This advice is just as true today as it was when Shakespeare wrote it around 1600. Or perhaps you prefer the Latin, caveat emptor, which means buyer beware. In both cases, the message seems to be to look out for your own best interests as no one will do so for you – even though many will adamantly profess to do so. Trust is a wonderful thing but blind trust is potentially devastating. I am speaking of the relationships we have with the ever burgeoning hordes of consultant who are methodically dismembering our best companies in the name of “continuous improvement.”

Before you dismiss this as a rant, it is important to point out that not all consultants are charlatans. The consulting model once was that you would hire someone who was a proven expert, someone who had amassed great expertise and knowledge, and bring them in to advise you on how to better your company. They were proven experts with thousands of hours of hands-on application of each principle and tool they sought to teach you. I don’t wish to talk about those firms today. In fact, if your consultant meets the Malcolm Gladwell 10,000 hour definition of an expert then you should hire them with no reservations.

Instant Consultants

The “expert” I want to talk about today is the “instant” consultant; those people and firms that self-proclaim themselves to be continuous improvement experts through publication, education or association. Often these firms are experts in another field and see continuous improvement to be a valuable line extension. Unfortunately, they don’t see the value in investing in actually becoming experts; it’s easier to simply define yourself as an expert. The problem, of course, is that the expertise of these newly minted consultants is superficial and often over branded. Their approaches are formulaic and limited and their branding hinges upon renaming tried and true tools or approaches. This is a toxic soup for continuous improvement because it devalues the real seminal work of others, it consumes real productivity and ultimately destroys future growth and innovation.

McKinsey & Company reports claim only a 30 percent success rate when engaging in significant business transformation. Independent sources acknowledge the high failure rate but put the success rate around 65 percent to 66 percent. That should tell you something – you are twice as likely to succeed without McKinsey as you are with them. Why is that?

Don’t be fooled. The people at the top 5 consultants are very smart. They are capable and they work hard. It’s not the people, it’s the system. The environment in which these consultants work dictates and restricts their success rate. No amount of hard work, superior know-how or luck is going to overcome this. If you want better results, you need a better system.

Two Camps of Quality and Improvement

There are two camps when it comes to quality and improvement. The first is the traditional accounting and quality audit types who favor ensuring that form is perfect. Their argument is that form defines function and this is a pretty good system for maintaining the status quo. The other camp is the engineering and scientific types who favor deep understanding and mastery of the fundamental drivers of a system. Their argument is that function defines form and this is a good system for driving changes. So ask why you hired your consultant: was it to reinforce the current system and become more like your competition, or was it to make significant changes to the current state and create breakthroughs? Whether function or form dominates, form is still important.

Expertise is, however, what mathematicians call necessary but not sufficient. In order to be a leader of change, people must willingly follow you. When you circumvent your in-house staff, when you discount your internal experts, you are effectively banking on self-interests. If your consultant delivers tangible results that are independently sourced, that self-interest may be enough; but when your consultant leverages internal expertise or makes recommendations but does not follow them through to results, your team will become demoralized and ultimately fail. This will also occur if you place your trust in an outsider and that outsider fails to generate results or merely makes recommendations and then moves on. What it really boils down to is whether all the parties, and especially the consultant, care about the outcome of the transformation you are undertaking. If they don’t, no amount of expertise will overcome this obstacle.

The real litmus test for whether your consultant cares is whether they think about your company and your problems after the solution has been proposed. There are consultants who feel their responsibility ends with recommendations. They focus on your issues for a short while, do the job and then move on. If things work, that’s great and if not, then you must have either misrepresented the issues (causing them to make poor recommendations) or not followed the recommendations. There is no commitment to seeing the issues through to completion; it’s just a job. The real expert consultants, on the other hand, focus on ensuring the work they do has an impact either because they care about your company or because they care about the product they deliver. In both cases, there is a commitment after the sale. Being true to one’s craft means having pride in the outcome and application – not just making the sale.

Finally, there is the issue of knowledge transfer. It is human nature to protect one’s source of power. After all, this is how we make our living. But true experts derive their value from sharing, and thus enhancing, their expertise and experience. They are not threatened by people challenging their recommendations. Challenges simply set them up to explain and defend those recommendations, actually enhancing their cache and position. They are secure in the knowledge that by teaching their customers and constantly expanding their knowhow.

Compare this to the self-appointed experts who are constantly defending their position and power. To share and transfer this diminishes their cache and so they guard it jealously. These are the advisors who, when their recommendations are challenged, focus on the challenger. They have no security in teaching – only in indoctrinating. Since they can only be sure that problems that follow the model upon which their expertise is based will be properly solved, dogma must prevail. Deviations from this dogma are a serious threat; if others know all the details of the process, the advisor has no future role.

Dogma in and of itself can be a good thing if it is accompanied by competence. When competency is high, dogma becomes a set of guiding mileposts or checkpoints to keep the program aligned. When competency is low, unfortunately, these guiding checkpoints are turned outward.  Rather than being a positive guide and helping the process, these same guides now become blinders limiting how problems can be solved, these same guides become bludgeons to defend why recommendations must be followed. It’s a toxic combination. Dogma with low competence stifles buy-in, destroys confidence (both for the consultant and for those receiving their recommendations), and effectively disenfranchises the local expertise (who often leave) making future success uncertain and unlikely.

What to Do

So what are we to do? Clearly you wouldn’t be hiring outside help if you knew all the answers and had all the solutions in an acceptable form. You have a need, you need help and the choice of who helps you will make all the difference.

Be aware and beware. Know what your consultant is selling you. Know where their expertise is sourced and how they will use that expertise to improve your business. The good guys won’t hesitate to tell you. They know they have something to offer that transcends the first inquiry and they will be focused on building that expertise in your organization so sharing is never a problem.

Hire experts. And make sure those experts are working on your problem. If you are going to spend money to train someone, spend it on your internal people – they are more likely to stay. You want people who actually know how to solve your problems, not people who are using you as a case study to prepare them for a bigger career.

Know what motivates your consultant. Do they truly care whether you succeed or fail or is your contract just another job? Are they bringing you expertise or are they harvesting the knowhow from your internal people so they can share it later with someone else? Be careful of the assumptions.

Learn to recognize form versus function. Different people think in different ways. Make certain the problem solving style you choose is consistent with the type of problem you have. Hire a form-over-function consultant for your ISO9000 preparation and they will be great. Hire that person for you continuous improvement team and they will be a disaster. The opposite holds true for your function over form people – great continuous improvement, lousy at ISO.

Ensure knowledge transfer! You have a problem. Most likely you lack expertise and that is why you hired a consultant. If they don’t transfer that expertise to your company, how will you deal with any recurrences of that problem?

Understand that knowledge transfer is different from training. Training focuses on information transfer and behavior modification and this is part, but not everything, that is needed for knowledge transfer to occur. Your goal in bringing in an outside consultant rather than hiring a new employee should be to build the wherewithal internally to solve similar problems to the one you have now. This includes the technical, social and managerial aspects Teams need training but they also need coaching to ensure that the knowledge transfer has occurred.

Take care of your internal experts. Yes, they are probably the people who got you to the point where you need an outside consultant but they are also the people who will manage your processes after your consultant leaves. They also, most likely, know what your consultant will do to solve the problem.

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It's Not Common Sense - It's a Sixth (Sigma) Sense

Many times when Lean and Six Sigma are introduced to an executive management team, there will be an individual who makes the statement: “This is just common sense. Why do we need to go through all this methodology, training and the statistics stuff to execute a simple project?”

A large segment of thought leaders in corporate America believe in the “just do it” approach to change. To them, the answers to process improvement needs are obvious. They think if everyone were as bright and motivated as they, these projects would get done … and the projects would get done on time and under budget. Of course, a Six Sigma practitioner would say, if the solution is known, then by all means implement it. The discipline of Lean and Six Sigma should be utilized on issues where the solution is not known.

While Six Sigma often gets a bad rap of “slowing down project implementation,” much of that is based on the up-front effort in properly defining the problem and collecting the appropriate data to determine the root cause of a problem. Once individual leaders become familiar with the concept of root cause, then they are willing to jump on the bandwagon and admit that common sense alone might not have allowed them to discover the solution to a customer requirement or systematically find the unknown cause to the process problem.

Real Common Sense Has a Role in Six Sigma Projects

Yet on the flip side, there are Six Sigma practitioners who downplay the role of common sense and hold on to tools alone – at the expense of the valuable insights that years of hands-on experience can bring. Common sense in the context of historical knowledge of a particular business – including a grasp of best practices and insights on how to make things happen in that business culture – is an invaluable ally of the Six Sigma disciplines needed for effective change. It is when common sense is the code word for “just do it” that problems can occur and warning flags should be seen.

In many instances, the just-do-it mentality can be hidden within the argument that a project methodology already exists. At any thriving organization, change has been going on for a long time, either formally or informally. If the best aspects of Lean and Six Sigma are to be leveraged to improve change dynamics, then it is best to introduce them as a way to augment the current project methodology and not as something to replace it. Building on an organization’s change history makes Lean and Six Sigma more acceptable to change agents by emphasizing and celebrating past success rather than tearing down and starting over.

This approach plays well in companies where the leadership groups sees Six Sigma as overly complicated and as taking steps back before being able to move forward. A common sense approach to implementing Six Sigma concentrates on the aspects of Six Sigma that move the company forward, rather than engaging in a philosophical debate of Six Sigma versus current project approaches.

Six Sigma Principles That Are Key to Successful Project Execution

The principles of Lean and Six Sigma most important to emphasize when integrating Six Sigma into an organization’s existing project methodology or philosophy are:

◉ In Six Sigma, the voice of the customer defines quality in terms of meeting customer expectations. Traditional project methodology usually concentrates on the quality and speed of the project implementation, itself, and not of the measurable customer experience.

◉ In a Six Sigma program, key leadership and P&L owners are trained and actively engaged in the process, with the CEO playing a key role in company-wide initiatives. When initiatives are scoped within only a single line of business, the key manager or Champion in that business unit plays the leadership role.

◉ A Six Sigma approach to change provides defined organizational roles (Green Belts, Black Belts, Master Black Belts, Champions, sponsors, etc.) to create accountability. Many companies choose to not use Six Sigma terminology when describing these roles. However, the clear definition of roles helps promote project success in a Six Sigma environment.

◉ Six Sigma promotes a critical mass of dedicated resources deployed to ensure success and help define capacity for change. Many times in a traditional project or change environment, management expects projects to be done in addition to the day-to-day job. While not all participants need be dedicated on a full-time basis, the critical roles should be full-time resources who continually move process improvement forward.

◉ Six Sigma uses a value-based project selection process and a rigorous system of projects-in-process management. So choosing projects to execute across silos in an organization allows for change to occur within processes impacting customers and not within discrete business units with little or unknown customer impact.

◉ The DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) methodology has, under its umbrella, both Lean and Six Sigma tools that can simultaneously focus on speed and quality. This integration of Lean tools speeds up processes by removing waste and non-value-added process complexity. These tools are additional ones in the arsenal of traditional project tools that make change happen.

Project Management Principles Key to Six Sigma Implementation

There also are aspects of an existing project methodology and change culture historically found within an organization that are critical for the successful integration of Six Sigma principles.

The traditional project management approach to change leverages an infrastructure to plan, manage and control the change initiative. Typically, a company will utilize a project management office that acts as the central point for all information and tracking of critical initiatives. Likewise, such a mechanism is essential for tracking the progress of all Six Sigma projects in regard to meeting deadlines and staying within budget. The project management office also is a good place to track all critical-to-quality metrics and expected financial benefits of Six Sigma projects.

A traditional project approach includes tools, templates and methodologies to ensure implementation success. These will include work plans, issues lists, task action records and all documentation related to managing the risk and communications around a project or wave of projects. Many of these traditional project management tools fit nicely into the “tollgating” process required between each phase of the DMAIC methodology.

Emphasis in a traditional project approach is on the project management process itself and implementation quality. This goes hand in hand with the Six Sigma approach that the end game of the project is to address speed and quality of the “operational process,” which, in turn, favorably impacts the customer experience and the bottom-line of the organization. So, a common sense approach indicates that Lean/Six Sigma and traditional project management are not either-or propositions, but critical elements in a successful change management approach. Of course, the two are not operating totally distinct from one another, but in a fashion where the sum of the two are greater than each by itself.

Six Sigma’s influence on a traditional approach to change management is that it helps shift the focus more directly on the customer experience and toward data-driven process improvement. The examples in the figures below show the effects of Six Sigma being introduced into a traditional merger methodology, a traditional mapping approach and a training and communications plan.

Figure 1: Merger Approach

Figure 2: Process Mapping

Figure 3: Training and Communications

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